Measurement

Test:

            A test is a standard set of questions or tasks to which students respond independently and the results of which can be used for a quantitative comparison of the performance of different students.

Measurement :

Measurement is the process of assigning numerical indices to attributes under study.  Measurement in educational evaluations would be raw scores, percentile ranks, derived scores etc. When a test is given, measurement takes place.

Evaluation

Evaluation is a continuous and comprehensive process which covers every aspect of individual’s achievement. Evaluation=Quantitative description of learner’s achievement +Qualitative description of learner’s abilities + Value judgements about achievements and abilities.

Difference between Measurement and Evaluation

Measurement	Evaluation
Quantitative	Qualitative
2. Independent	Depends upon measurement
3. Scientific and precise	Unscientific and not precise
4. Objective and impersonal	Subjective and personal
5. Not a continuous process	Continuous process
6.Not depends upon past or future	Depends upon past and future
7.Focus is only on a single aspect  like subject matter achievement	Emphasises all aspects of pupil growth

Steps involved in Evaluation

1. Define the objectives to be tested.
2. State the objectives.
3. Selection of evaluation tools.
4. Quality of tools.
5. Practicability of the tools.
6. Interpretation of data.
7. Application of results.

Functions of Evaluation

•      Evaluation improves quality of teaching.

•      Evaluation helps in clarifying the objectives.

•      Evaluation motivates learners.

•      Evaluation can bring changes in the curriculum.

•      Guidance can be given on the basis of evaluation.

Types of Evaluation

1. Formative Evaluation
2. Summative Evaluation
3. Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (C.C.E)

Formative Evaluation is carried out during a course of instruction for providing continuous feedback to both the teachers and the learners.  It is a tool used by the teacher to continuously monitor student progress in a non threatening, supportive environment.  It gives a chance for the student to reflect on his performance, take advice and improve upon it.

Summative Assessment is carried out at the end of a course of learning.  It measures or ‘sums-up’ how much a student has learned from the course.  It, can only certify the level of achievement at a given point of time.  

•      Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) is a system of evaluation that covers all aspects of student development.  The term ‘continuous’ means the student’s ‘growth and development’ is a continuous process that spread over the entire span of academic session. The second term ‘comprehensive’ means that the scheme attempts to cover both the scholastic and the co-scholastic aspects of the students’ growth and development.  C.C.E  includes regularity of assessment, frequency of testing, diagnosis of learning gaps, use of corrective measures, retesting and feedback to teachers and students for their self evaluation.

Objectives of C.C.E

•      To develop cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills

•      To make evaluation an integral part of teaching-learning process

•      To lay emphasis on thought process and de- emphasize memorization

•      To use evaluation for improvement of students achievement and teaching-learning strategies

•      To make the process of teaching and learning a learner-centred activity

Features of C.C.E

•      It is continuous in the sense that  assessment of students starts in the beginning of instructions (placement evaluation) and continues during the instructional process (formative evaluation) informally using multiple techniques of evaluation .

•      It is comprehensive because it includes assessment in scholastic as well as co-scholastic aspects of the pupil’s growth.

•      Scholastic aspects include subject specific areas, whereas co-scholastic aspects include life skills, co-curricular activities, attitudes and values .

•      Assessment in Scholastic areas is done informally and formally using multiple techniques of evaluation continually and periodically.

•      Assessment in Co-scholastic areas needs to be done systematically and methodologically.

Functions of C.C.E

•      C.C.E. helps the teacher to organize effective teaching strategies.

•      C.C.E. diagnoses each individual learner’s strengths and weaknesses and their needs.

•      C.C.E. motivates children to develop good study habits, to correct errors, and to direct their activities towards the achievement of desired goals.

•      C.C.E. helps in regular assessment.

•      C.C.E. motivates children to develop good study habits, to correct errors, and to direct their activities towards the achievement of desired goals.

•      C.C.E. identifies areas of aptitude and interest.

•      It provides information and reports on the progress of students and thus helps in predicting the future success of the learner.

Techniques of Evaluation

•      Observation Technique

•      Self Reporting Technique

•      Projective Technique

•      Case Study

•      Socio-metric Technique

Observation Technique

•      We can define observation broadly as one person’s perception. When we observe something we use all of our senses, as this is the way that we take in information about the world around us.

Types of observation

•      Naturalistic observations: observations undertaken in a naturalistic environment. These are undertaken in the everyday setting of the participant.

•      Structured observation (Laboratory observations ): These are carried out in a controlled environment that has been set up by the researcher in an effort to make the situation as similar as possible for all participants.

•      Participant observation: It is a type of observation where the observer is a full member of the group being studied.

•      Nonparticipant  observation :  Here observer does not involve themselves with the group being observed at all.

Tools Used in Observation Technique

•      Check list

•      Rating Scale

•      Anecdotal Record

•      Cumulative Record etc.

Self Reporting Technique

•      Self-reporting technique allows participants to describe their own experiences rather than inferring this from observing participants. It involves a printed series of questions for gathering information typically about attitudes, intentions and behaviours. Through this technique it is able to study large samples of people fairly easy and quickly.

Tools Used in Self Reporting Technique

•      Questionnaires and interviews.

•      Open-ended group discussions

•      Focus group discussions.

•      Rating scale.

Projective Technique

Projective techniques involve asking subjects to interpret or fill in visual stimuli, complete sentences, or report what associations particular words bring to mind. Here the subjects project their own personalities onto the stimulus, often revealing personal conflicts, motivations, coping styles, and other characteristics.
Tools Used in Projective Technique

•      Word Association Test-WAT

•      Sentence Completion Test-SCT

•      Thematic Apperception Test-TAT

•      Rorschach’s Ink blot Test

Case Study

case study is a "published report about a person, group, or situation that has been studied over a period of time using different techniques and tools of evaluation. The "case" being studied may be an individual, organization, event, or action, existing in a specific time and place. Purpose of case study is to provide increased understanding of the student. 

Socio metric Technique

Sociometry-is a way of measuring the degree of relatedness among people. It shows the patterns of how individuals associate with each other when acting as a group toward a specified end or goal. Sociometry is an essential tool for people to build mature group networks and positive relationship behaviours.Sociometric techniques are methods that qualitatively measure aspects of social relationships, such as social acceptance (i.e., how much an individual is liked by peers) and social status (i.e., child’s social standing in comparison to peers).

sociogram

 A sociogram is the pictorial representation of inter-relationships within a group. Its purpose is to discover group structure: i.e., the basic "network" of friendship patterns and sub-group organization.  The relations of any one child to the group as a whole are another type of information which can be derived from a sociogram.  A sociogram helps the teacher to develop greater understanding of group behaviour so that he/she can operate more wisely in group management.

Tools of Evaluation

1. Check List

•      It is a two dimensional chart showing the names of children and the personality traits that we measure. It is a list of items, as names of tasks, for comparison and verification, or other checking purposes.

2 .Rating Scale

•      It is an extended version of check list.  Opinions are usually expressed on a scale or values. It may be descriptive, numerical, graphic or percentage scale. Some times we rate the traits as good, very good , average, below average, excellent etc.  It is an evaluation tool by which one systematizes the expression of opinion concerning a trait. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale or values.  Rating scale is used wherever a response or a learner behaviour is likely to be in a continuum – from excellent to bad or from satisfactory to unsatisfactory.

Types of Rating Scale

•      Nominal Scale

The nominal level scale is a very simple scale consisting of an assignment of choices that tend to be mutually exclusive. In a nominal scale, the choices cannot be ranked because all the categories are different from each other.  A good example of a nominal scale is gender, where males are put into Group 1 and females into Group 2.  It makes no sense to rank male and female because neither is greater than the other.

•      Ordinal Scale

•      Ordinal scales are the simplest of attitude-measuring scales used in marketing research.  While a nominal scale may contain numbers arbitrarily, each number in an ordinal scale represents a rank of order. Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort, etc.   In an ordinal scale, products or objects are rated based on their importance within a given category.  For instance, an ordinal scale of chocolates might ask you to rank your preference from 1 to 5, where 1 is the kind you like best and 5 is the one you like least.

•      Interval Scale

•      Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact differences between the values. The classic example of an interval scale is Celsius temperature because the difference between each value is the same.  For example, the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70 degrees.  Time is another good example of an interval scale in which the increments are known, consistent, and measurable.

•      Ratio Scale

A ratio scale is similar to an interval scale, except the answers to these questions have a simple unambiguous starting point, typically zero. Ratio scales often measure things like money, miles, height and weight etc. It becomes a scale when the data is all compiled and your answers are put on a spectrum with other respondents. Ratio scales give us the ultimate–order, interval values, plus the ability to calculate ratios since a “true zero” can be defined.

Anecdotal

•      Anecdotal  records derives its origin and meaning from the word ‘anecdotes’ – brief events and episodes. An Anecdotal Record is the observed behaviour of a student.It is a record of some significant  episode happened in the life of the student that sheds light on the conduct, thinking, skills and capabilities, revealing  significant features and characteristics about his/her personality.

Cumulative Records

•      Provides information across different developmental areas like the child’s academic and extra curricular activities, social and emotional development, choices, interests and relationships etc. Identifies strengths and weaknesses and assesses children’s progress over a period of time. Information about a child is cumulated year by year.

Tools of Self Reporting Technique

•      questionnaire

•      A questionnaire is a set of questions for gathering information from individuals. They are of two types- open ended and closed ended. Open ended questions allow the participants to answer the questions in their own words.Closed ended questions include a list of predetermined answers from which answers can be chosen.

•      open-ended questions give your audience an opportunity to express their opinions in a free-flowing manner. These questions don't have predetermined set of responses and the respondent is free to answer whatever he/she feels right. By including open format questions in your questionnaire, you can get true, insightful and even unexpected suggestions. Qualitative questions fall under this category.

•      Multiple choice questions, where respondents are restricted to choose among any of the given multiple choice answers are known as closed format or closed-ended questions. These questions are ideal for calculating statistical data and percentages, as the answers set is known. Closed ended questions can also be asked to different groups at different intervals to efficiently track their opinion

interview

An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by the interviewer  to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. Interviews are a standard part of qualitative research.

Tools of Projective Technique

•      A projective test is one in which a person's patterns of thought, attitudes, observational capacity, and emotional responses are evaluated on the basis of responses to ambiguous test materials.

1.Sentence completion tests

•      SCT provide respondents with beginnings of sentences, referred to as “stems,” and respondents then complete the sentences in ways that are meaningful to them. The responses are believed to provide indications of attitudes, beliefs, motivations, or other mental states. Therefore, sentence completion technique, promotes the respondents to disclose their concealed feelings.

•      2.Word-association test

•      word-association test is a tool used in projective approaches to personality assessment. Introduced by Francis Galton and used popularly by Carl Jung.  In a word association test, the researcher presents a series of words to individual respondents. For each word, participants are instructed to respond with the first word (i.e., associate) that comes to mind.  Freud believed that such responses provided clues to peoples' personalities .

3.Thematic Apperception Test-TAT

•      The thematic apperception test (TAT) is a projective personality test that was designed by Christiana D. Morgan and Henry A. Murray.  The TAT consists of 31 pictures that depict a variety of social and interpersonal situations.  The subject is asked to tell a story about each picture to the examiner. Of the 31 pictures, 10 are gender-specific while 21 others can be used with adults of either sex and with children.

4.Rorschach’s Ink blot Test

•      The theory behind the test, created by Hermann Rorschach, is that the test taker's spontaneous or unrehearsed responses reveal deep secrets or significant information about the taker's personality or innermost thoughts.

Assessment  - Definition

•      Assessment is a comprehensive term, which includes collection of information of students learning from multiple sources. Black and Wiliam (1998) define assessment  broadly to include all activities that teachers and students undertake to get information that can be used diagnostically to alter teaching and learning.

•      It is the process of observing and documenting children’s development, the work they do, and how they do it, with the goal of gathering meaningful information about the child in order to make educational decisions that will benefit the child. An assessment may be a test, or methods such as observations, interviews, behaviour monitoring etc.

Four Paradigms of Assessments

(1)   Assessment of Learning

The ‘assessment of learning’ is defined as a process whereby someone attempts to describe and quantify the knowledge, attitudes or skills possessed by another.  Assessment of learning occurs when teachers use evidence of student learning to make judgements on student achievement against goals and standards. (summative)  Teacher direction is paramount and the student has little involvement in the design or implementation of the assessment process in these circumstances.

(2)   Assessment for Learning

Teacher designs learning.  Teacher collects evidence.  Teacher judges what has been learnt (and what has not been learnt).

(3)   Assessment as Learning

Assessment as learning occurs when students reflect on and monitor their progress to inform their future learning goals. The ‘assessment as learning’ is more connected with diagnostic assessment .Assessment as learning generates opportunities for self assessment and peer assessment. Students take on increased responsibility to generate quality information about their learning and that of others.

(4)   Assessment in Learning

Teacher and student co-construct learning.  Teacher and student co-construct assessment.  Teacher and student co-construct learning progress map.  Student are the centre of learning. Student monitors, assesses and reflects on learning. Student initiates demonstration of learning (to self and others). Teacher acts as a coach and a mentor.

Difference between Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment	Evaluation
Formative- On going, To Improve Learning	Summative-Final, To Improve  Quality
Process-oriented- How Learning Is Going	Product -oriented- What’s Been Learned
Diagnostic- Identify Areas for Improvement	Judgmental-Arrive at an Overall Grade/Score
Cooperative-Learn from Each Other	Competitive-Beat Each Other Out
Flexible- Adjust As Problems Are Clarified	Fixed - To Reward Success, Punish Failure
Absolute: Strive for Ideal Outcomes	Comparative: Divide Better from Worse

open book assessment”

An “open book assessment” is one in which examinees are allowed to consult their class notes, textbooks, and other approved materials while answering questions. It is ideally suited to programmes that especially aim at developing the skills of critical and creative thinking.

Computerised adaptive testing (CAT)

•      CAT is a method for administering exams that merges computer technology with modern measurement theory to increase the efficiency of the exam process. Reduces the number of ‘easy items’ that high-ability candidates receive; & ‘easy items’ tell little about a high performing candidates ability .

•      Performance assessment

•      It is a method of teaching and learning that involves both process and product. It is not just a testing strategy. Assessing the product  means measuring the quantity and quality of individual work in a group project. Assessing the process - evaluating individual teamwork skills and interaction. Performance assessment tasks involve students in constructing various types of products.Performance assessment measures students skills based on authentic tasks such as activities, exercises, or problems that require students to show what they can do.

Types of Performance assessment

•      Group projects enabling a number of students to work together on a complex problem that requires planning, research, internal discussion, and group presentation.

•      Essays assessing students' understanding of a subject through a written description, analysis, explanation, or summary.

•      Experiments testing how well students understand scientific concepts and can carry out scientific processes.

•      Demonstrations giving students opportunities to show their mastery of subject-area content and procedures.

•      Portfolios allowing students to provide a broad portrait of their performance through files that contain collections of students' work, assembled over time.

Characteristics of Performance-Based Assessment  

•      authentic, connected to everyday life.

•      provides opportunities for students to show what they can do and opportunities to measure their progress.

•      involves students in the process of evaluation

•      integrates tasks involving multiple skills and knowledge of culture.

•      helps improve overall student performance .

THE ADVANTAGES OF PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT

The portfolio assessment can

•      help students understand their strengths and weaknesses.

•      students are more able to link successes and failures to performance and may also facilitate goal setting through portfolio assessment.

•       portfolios can be used to evaluate both products and process, and they allow the integration of learning and assessment.

•      Learning based on portfolio assessment can be more student-directed, and since evaluation is not based on single scores, instruction based on learning styles is more easily evaluated.

•      portfolios provide more information about student progress and encourage students to be responsible of their own learning. Therefore, students feel as they take bigger roles in the learning and the assessment processes.

•      Portfolios also help students develop skills necessary for life-long learning.

•      On the other hand, portfolios reduce the teacher's daily burden of grading papers.

•       In sum, portfolios enable to assess global understanding and thinking skills with a multidimensional form of evaluation.

rubric

A rubric is a scoring guide that seeks to evaluate a student's performance based on the sum of a full range of criteria rather than a single numerical score.  A rubric is an authentic assessment tool used to measure students' work.  A rubric is a working guide for students and teachers, usually handed out before the assignment begins in order to get students to think about the criteria on which their work will be judged.  A rubric enhances the quality of direct instruction.

Types of Rubrics - Analytic and holistic rubrics

•      Analytic rubrics describe work on each criterion separately. It Gives diagnostic information to teacher. Gives formative feedback to students. Is easier to link to instruction than holistic rubrics. Is good for formative assessment; adaptable for summative assessment; if you need an overall score for grading, you can combine the scores. Focusing on the criteria one at a time is better for instruction and better for formative assessment because students can see what aspects of their work need what kind of attention.

•      Holistic rubrics describe the work by applying all the criteria at the same time and enabling an overall judgment about the quality of the work. Holistic rubrics assess student work as a whole.In Holistic rubrics scoring is faster than with analytic rubrics. It requires less time to achieve inter-rating reliability. The main disadvantage is a single overall score does not communicate information about what to do to improve. Not good for formative assessment.  One classroom purpose for which holistic rubrics are better than analytic rubrics is the situation in which students will not see the results of a final summative assessment and you will not really use the information for anything except a grade.Some high school final examinations fall into this category. Grading with rubrics is faster when there is only one decision to make, rather than a separate decision for each criterion.

Social Constructivism

Social constructivism emphasises that all cognitive functions including learning are dependent on interactions with others (e.g. teachers, peers, and parents). Therefore learning is critically dependent on the qualities of a collaborative process within an educational community, which is situation specific and context bound. However learning must also be seen as more than the assimilation of new knowledge by the individual, but also as the process by which learners are integrated into a knowledge community.

According to social constructivism nothing is learnt from scratch; instead it is related to existing knowledge with new information being integrated into and expanding the existing network of understanding.

LIFE SKILLS

LIFE SKILLS are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Components of life skills are thinking skills, emotional skills and social skills.

•      Thinking skills involve

Self-Awareness,ProblemSolving,Decision Making,Critical Thinking, and Creative Thinking.

•      Social skills involve

Interpersonal relationships, Effective Communication, and Empathy

•      Emotional skills involve

Managing Feelings/ emotions, and Dealing with stress

We measure these life skills using check lists, rating scale, anecdotal record, observation, participation, and interests shown.

Reflective practice 

Reflective practice is a process by which you: stop and think about your practice, consciously analyse your decision making and draw on theory and relate it to what you do in practice.Critical analysis and evaluation refocuses your thinking on your existing knowledge and helps generate new knowledge and ideas. As a result, you may modify your actions, behaviour, treatments and learning needs.

Reflective practice is the ability to reflect on one's actions so as to engage in a process of continuous learning. Reflective practice can be an important tool in practice-based professional learning settings where people learn from their own professional experiences, rather than from formal learning or knowledge transfer. It may be the most important source of personal professional development and improvement.

Reflective practice is a way of studying your own experiences to improve the way you work. It is very useful for health professionals who want to carry on learning throughout their lives.

Gibb's reflective cycle is a process involving six steps:

Description - What happened?

Feelings - What did you think and feel about it?

Evaluation - What were the positives and negatives?

Analysis - What sense can you make of it?

Conclusion - What else could you have done?

Action Plan - What will you do next time?

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